The Qur’an, Islam’s scripture, is not naïve about violence or uniformly opposed to its use. It speaks of Muslims fighting and killing those who refuse to live under the singular lordship of God and who break covenants of peace with the Prophet Muhammad (Q 9:1-14). It suggests that God prefers believers who struggle/fight in His way over those who sit idly at home (Q 4:95). It states that a life can be taken for a life (Q 5:45), an eye for an eye, etc.

On the other hand, foregoing one’s right to such justice expiates for one’s sins, while killing a single soul is tantamount to killing all of humanity (Q 5:32), and no life is to be taken without cause (Q 6:151).

Jihad is often mistranslated into English as “holy war”, but means “struggle.” Only a quarter of the roughly 40 references to it in the Qur’an can be clearly linked to armed struggle, while the others are more suggestive of religious devotion and purity of intention than of fighting.

Later scholars defined jihad in terms of force used as a means of defending and extending religion, i.e., God’s morality, but they also included rules for battle conduct in their discussion, rules often intended to reduce rather than escalate violence. They stated, for example, that jihad can be pursued only under legitimate authority of society’s rulers -- authority granted to further the prosperity (salah) of society over against its corruption (fasad).

The Qur’an attributes evil -- or corruption in the land -- not only to a society’s failure to heed the prophetic message and live in recognition of a day of judgment sure to come but also to unhappy inclinations in the human soul (Q 12:53). In this sense, jihad as struggle for the way of God came to be widely understood as a spiritual battle against the ungodly elements in the soul that keep believers from full enjoyment of the presence of God. One could be a martyr by undergoing a spiritual death (to one’s own egoistic impulses) and not actual death on the battlefield. Indeed, martyrdom in the Qur’an has no violent connotations but implies simply steadfast witness (shahada) to belief in God.

Thus, while the Qur’an has no clear definition of either military jihad (jihad of the sword, jihad al-sayf, known as the lesser jihad) or spiritual jihad (jihad against the soul, jihad al-nafs, known as the greater jihad), both are part of Islam.

In modern times, jihad has been associated with moral, educational, and national causes—and also with non-violence. For example, the Algerian spiritual master, Sheikh ‘Alawi (1874-1934), counseled struggle against French colonial rule but not on its own jingoistic terms. For him, countering French violence in kind was risky. It would make Muslims like their colonial masters, i.e. violent and worldly in purpose. And, in turn, it would undermine the otherworldly purpose of Muslim life, namely preoccupation with the love of God.

Violence on the basis of confessional differences alone has no legitimacy. The Qur’an speaks of battling polytheism, including decadent forms of Jewish and Christian monotheism (Q 9:29). This, however, is keyed not to degenerate belief but to worldly arrogance whereby the powerful justify policies of injustice by making themselves God’s partners. True prophecy is therefore a prerequisite for true justice. Muslims have on occasion taken non-Muslim belief as cause of enmity, but this does not square with the overall heritage. The Qur’an says there can be no coercion in religion (Q 2:256) and calls for equality between Muslims and non-Muslims (Q 3:64). And history attests to non-Muslim recognition of Muslim justice. Even if not enjoying the same legal status as Muslims, non-Muslims living under Muslim rule in the pre-modern period were known to take recourse to Islamic courts for protection of their personal and financial interests.

In other words, Islam is not about politics per se, let alone political violence, but a tightly regulated economy of morality. Its two chief marks are justice and mercy. Rights are owed to God (huquq allah) as made known by Him (e.g. no worship of anything/anyone but Him, no stealing, no adultery, etc.). Transgressors of these rights will be held accountable on Judgment Day but can hope for mercy, which God has decreed for Himself (Q 6:12). Similarly, rights are owed to other humans (huquq al-‘ibad), including rights owed to the poor and weaker members of society. Those whose rights have been transgressed are to be compensated, but they can also choose to forego retribution as an act of compassion to preserve harmony in society. The Prophet Muhammad was known for his willingness to forego retribution against those who persecuted him for the sake of a greater purpose, namely peace in society, as illustrated by his tolerance towards his former enemies after his peaceful conquest of Mecca. A great reward in the next life awaits those who sincerely turn to religion and steadfastly adhere to the way of God (sabil allah)—in praying and fasting, in doing good works, and, if necessary, in struggling (jihad) to protect/promote the moral economy of God. The trials of this world are to be endured for the sake of the next, and those who support God by holding fast to His economy of morality can expect to be supported by Him (Q 47:7).

Islam calls for the preservation of rights, i.e. justice, but also the willingness to forego those rights for the sake of a greater interest, i.e. compassionate relations in society. The legitimate use of power cannot transgress rights, either those of God or those of His creatures. Political violence against human society, whether deployed by state or non-state actors, is contrary to Islam. Such violence in the name of Islam certainly exists today. It is, however, the byproduct of modernist supremacist ideologies now parading as Islam and going by the name of Jihadism, not of the Qur’an and the sharia heritage it engendered.